What did Carolingian kings know about the Roman army? The Latin treatise translated below is part of the answer to that question. It is a précis of Vegetius’s De re militari (c. 400), and it was probably written for the young king Lothar II by Archbishop Hraban Maurus in 855.

The purpose of the treatise, and how historians should interpret it, is disputed. Was it intended as practical advice? If so, can it therefore be treated as a rough guide to the Frankish army? Or did Hraban have other goals in mind in writing? What inspired him to copy certain parts of Vegetius, and omit others? Why did he write it when he did? What additions did he make? And what can the treatise tell us about Frankish kingship?

I discuss these questions in  ‘Archbishop Hraban Maurus, Lothar II and the Roman Army’, in Autorité de l’évêque – Autorité de l’écrit / Autorität der Bischöfe – Autorität des Wortes. Études en hommage à Geneviève Bührer-Thierry / Beiträge zu Ehren von Geneviève Bührer-Thierry, forthcoming.

Translation by CW, December 2024.
Please note: I used the ELM LLM to create a base translation, which I then checked for errors and adjusted. This translation is still only a draft, and I would be grateful to receive any suggestions for improvement.
Edition of the Latin: Ernst Dümmler, ‘De procinctv romanae miliciae’, Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum, 15 (1872), pp. 443-451 https://www.jstor.org/stable/20648389
Further reading:  https://geschichtsquellen.de/werk/5605

Since, as I said at the beginning,[1]no one ought to know more than the king, after those few writings provided not in eloquent but in faithful speech, I have also added some chapters excerpted from a small work of Flavius Vegetius Renatus on the training of the Roman army, describing how recruits were trained among them, so that it may be clearly evident that victory is provided not by the multitude of many peoples, but by the ingenuity and training of strong and chosen men, with the help of God. The prologue ends. The book begins.

i. That the Romans through the practice of arms overcame those more numerous and stronger than themselves.

The Romans, subduing nearly the whole world, emerged victorious not through the multitude of peoples and very large armies, but through the ingenuity and practice of fighting, which they exercised daily. For compared to the multitude of the Gauls they seemed very few, and next to the stature of the Germans they were considered small and average. The Spaniards were always superior in both numbers and physical enormity, as well as in strength. What, indeed, about the cunning of the Africans and the power of their riches, to which the Romans were always inferior? What also is to be said about the wisdom of the Greeks and their arts, to which they were always unmatched? But all these challenges were overcome by the practice and continuous training of skilled soldiers, who were instructed by daily exercise. What is well learned is carried out more successfully and with greater ease, for a small number of warriors trained for battle advances to victory, while a large untrained multitude falls feebly into death. Therefore, proven and trained men were led to fight, to whom it was shameful to turn their backs to the enemy, and they acquired victory in a praiseworthy manner.

ii. From which regions of the world soldiers were recruited

But since one people (gens) surpasses another both in war and in prudence, it must be said whence the best soldiers were chosen. For peoples closer to the sun’s rays are skilled in wisdom, and have less blood, and therefore they are more timid. On the contrary, those who inhabit the north are less intelligent but stronger in spirit. Therefore, the best soldiers were selected from temperate regions, because they would avoid dangers through prudence and leap upon the enemy through audacity.

iii. The recruits were chosen based on their age.

Among the ancients, soldiers were enlisted and assigned when they began puberty: this is still observed today, so that boys and adolescents may be nurtured in the households of rulers, in order that they may learn to endure hardships and adversities, and to bear hunger, cold, and the heat of the sun. For if this age passes without exercise and discipline, the body quickly becomes flabby. Hence, there is a common proverb, which says: “In youth, one can become a horseman, but at an older age, either hardly or never.”[2] For any discipline learned from the start of youth is more strongly retained because it grows almost naturally with that age, and also because there is pleasure and delight involved at such ages. Indeed, it is better that a trained young person should object that the age for fighting has not yet come, rather than regret that it has passed. Therefore, the ancient recruits were thoroughly trained, so that they would find more pleasure in accomplishing what they knew well, rather than being frightened to undertake it

iv. That many were chosen from their face and posture of their body.

They were selected more for the shape of the body and facial appearance than for height. This is considered not only in humans but also in horses, dogs, and birds of different kinds. Experts would examine individual body parts—the eyes, head, neck, belly, legs, feet, and other limbs. And if these characteristics are considered in animals, how much more should it be considered in a man, who must fight for freedom, for the king’s life, and for the defense of the homeland against enemies? Therefore, a young man who is to be prepared for combat should be chosen with vigilant and lively eyes, an erect neck, a broad chest, muscular shoulders, long arms, a moderate belly, strong fingers, slender legs, and feet not overwhelmed by excessive flesh but solid with the toughness of tendons. If he also possesses a corresponding size, these traits will indicate a well-chosen soldier. However, if he has the aforementioned qualities, his size will not be a major concern. For Tydeus, though small in stature, is said to have been stronger with arms. And David, being small, killed Goliath the giant.

Followers of certain professions were also selected, and others were rejected. For they considered fishers, bird catchers, and those who engaged in women’s tasks should be kept far from the military. But hunters of deer, boars, and bears, as well as blacksmiths, carpenters, and butchers were enlisted in the military, because these occupations seem to involve greater toughness and firmness of body, and a more rigorous regimen.

v. How they were trained in marching and running

The recruits were also exercised in military marching so that they would maintain their formation while marching quickly and uniformly. For if an army advances scattered and divided, it often incurs severe danger. Hence, it is necessary for them to learn to march uniformly and charge at the enemy with one and the same impetus. The recruits were also trained in running so that, by leaping at the adversaries with greater momentum, they would frighten them with their swift charge, quickly seize advantageous positions and preempt any enemies attempting to do the same. When necessity demanded, which frequently happens in the course of war, they quickly scouted the enemy camps and, returning more swiftly, reported back. They also pursued the fleeing enemies most rapidly, consigning them to death or captivity. They were also trained to jump, so that they could more easily leap over ditches or any other obstacles they might encounter. Moreover, they instilled great terror in the enemies by their leaping, overwhelming them with their onslaught before they could defend themselves from the blows.

vi. How they were trained in swimming.

Soldiers were also trained in the use of swimming. For the training ground chosen was the Campus Martius, which is near the Tiber River, where the young men would learn the military exercises. After various other exercises that dirtied them with sweat and dust, they would wash in the Tiber River during the summer, wherein washing off both dust and sweat they also tempered their labors and weariness by the convenience of the water, and thus by the frequent practice of bathing, they also learned the skill of swimming. For the necessity of knowing how to swim is frequently proven by many instances. For both a fleeing army and a pursuing one are often compelled to swim. Rivers are not always crossed by bridges. Torrents, too, tend to swell excessively from sudden rains. Therefore, the Romans, foreseeing such dangers, trained their soldiers with military exercises.

vi [sic]. How they were trained with wicker shields and clubs.

Each soldier used to plant a pole in the ground so firmly that it could not wobble and stood six feet tall, that is, of average human height. Against this pole, the recruit would approach as if facing an enemy, with a round shield made of wicker, which was twice as heavy as the shield of polished wood, and holding in his right hand a wooden club similarly heavier than a real sword. Thus, he would rise against this pole as if against an enemy, now striking at the head, now at the face, now jabbing at the belly and sides, now chopping at the knees or legs. And so, he would attack, leap forward, leap back, and duck under, whenever any part was exposed to a strike. The reason the wicker shield and club were heavier was so that, accustomed to handling heavy and practice arms, they would find it more delightful to wield the light and real weapons.

vii. That they were taught to thrust rather than to slash

They were also taught to thrust rather than to slash because a thrust inflicts a more dangerous wound than a slash. Moreover, one who slashes does not penetrate the toughness of the bone or the solidity of the armour as much, but a thrust, driven in by two inches, often becomes deadly. A thrust is delivered with the whole effort of the body, whereas a slash is made by the lifting of the right hand alone and exposes the side of the one striking, making it vulnerable to being pierced by the enemy.

viii. How they were trained to throw javelins 

The recruits were also trained to throw javelins. For heavier javelins than those that would actually be used were directed at the same pole by the recruits. In this exercise, the trainer primarily ensured that the javelin was powerfully thrown with a snapping motion, which is an indication of strength, and that it either stuck into the pole itself or landed close to it. Such training not only increases strength in the arms but also gains expertise in throwing.

ix. How recruits were exercised in shooting arrows.

Similarly, those who were known to be more suitable and industrious were trained with bows and practice arrows to shoot at poles. In this exercise, the instructors focused on ensuring that the archers held the bow knowledgeably and fully, that the left hand was steady, that the right hand was drawn with precision, that both the eye and the mind were equally focused on the target, and that they shot straight. The usefulness of archers in battle is proven by many examples

x. How they were trained to use slings.

It was considered excellent to train the recruits in slinging stones from slings. This kind of strike is extremely useful to the one directing it and very dangerous to those who are targeted by it, as David knew, and Goliath too, whom he felled with a single stone. Carrying a sling is of no weight, and often an army coming into rocky areas, if it has skilled slingers, can inflict great destruction on the enemy, especially since neither a helmet nor armour can stop the force of the incoming stone, and the enemy lies fallen before the blood is seen to be spilled.

xi. How they were trained to use lead-weighted darts.

They also used lead-weighted darts, attaching five to each shield, which they would then launch at adversaries when the opportunity arose. The use of these weapons proved so beneficial that some battles were very vigorously carried out with them, to such an extent that the legions which used them were named by Diocletian and Maximian as the Jovians and Herculians. They were also called Mattiobarbuli by their allies. The use of these weapons was so effective in battle that they nearly replaced the use of archers amongst those armed with shields, as the lead-weighted darts could forcefully reach distances where a javelin could not, wounding either the enemy or his horse with a severe injury.

xii. The way they were trained to mount horses.

They were trained to mount horses in this way. Wooden horses were set up, in winter under a roof, and in summer in the field, and upon these, the recruits tried to mount first unarmoured, then shielded and helmeted, and even also holding very large spears in their hands. And such care was taken that they were forced not only to leap on from the right side, but also from the left and from behind, and they would dismount with drawn swords and learned many methods of these jumps. This exercise of jumping thrives very well among the Frankish peoples.

xiii. Summary.

With these things arranged in this way, each will be briefly recapitulated. The army (exercitus) received its name from training (exercitium). Therefore, the younger and inexperienced soldiers, that is, the new recruits, were trained in the morning and in the afternoon in every type of weaponry. However, the veterans and those who were already trained were exercised only once a day with their weapons. And this was done so that in no way would the art of warfare be forgotten, and that by actual practice both speed and strength would be acquired, skill would be imparted to the arms, and knowledge of striking the enemy and protecting oneself would be preserved. For everything that is done frequently through practice is done better and more easily. Hence, the Romans were exercised daily in various drills, especially to know how to maintain formations and to protect their standards in the confusion of battle.

They were also trained with stakes, as has been mentioned, so that they might learn to aim at the sides, feet, or head with a thrust. Similarly, they became accustomed to making a simultaneous attack with a leap, and to quickly advance brandishing the shield and then fall back again. They were taught now to rush forward with a leap, now to spring back in retreat, and they learned even to pierce stakes with javelins themselves. Thus, both the skill of striking and dexterity grew.

The bowmen even placed bundles of brushwood or straw as a target, so that, being six hundred feet away, they often hit them with either arrows or stones from a sling. They also practised rotating the sling once around the head to throw stones.

They also practised throwing stones of the weight of a pound with the hand alone, because such practice is more readily available than with a sling. And all these things were practised daily with training, so that an interrupted habit would not weaken their spirits and make their bodies sluggish. For frequent use and exercise, as it were, naturally supplies both knowledge of fighting and speed and strength.

xiv. An exhortation to military matters drawn from other arts

All arts grow through practice. For an athlete, that is, a wrestler, often exercises, and this for the sake of capturing public favour. A hunter also exercises daily for a small reward. A charioteer or a captain similarly seem to exercise for a meager wage. And if followers of these and other professions dedicate themselves to so many exercises and so much labour for such a small prize, what should a soldier do, chosen by oath, to whom not only a glorious victory but also great spoil is reserved? And whom, for such deeds, the judgment of the king usually promotes to riches and dignities?

For, as we said, what other craftsmen do for the sake of a meager wage and fame, a soldier should indeed do of his own free will for the life of the king, for defending the homeland, for preserving faith (fides) to the ruler, and what is greater than all these, for attaining eternal life. For he who has kept the faith he promised to his ruler inviolable, and has preferred to lose his spirit (anima), that is, this present life, rather than lose faith, will undoubtedly receive eternal life from Him who established the laws and commanded them to be kept unblemished. The end.

[1] A reference to an earlier part of Hraban’s address to Lothar II, on a different topic, which has been preserved separately.

[2] Apparently a Frankish proverb.